Naxalism refers to a militant Maoist movement in India that advocates armed struggle to overthrow the state and establish a communist order. It draws ideological inspiration from Marxism-Leninism-Maoism and rejects parliamentary democracy as a means of social transformation. It represents a long-running Left Wing Extremist (LWE) movement rooted in deep socio-economic inequalities, land alienation, and governance deficits in tribal and rural regions. While the scale of violence has declined significantly in recent years, the movement continues to pose an internal security and developmental challenge.

Historical Background

Naxalbari Uprising (1967)

• The movement originated in Naxalbari village of Darjeeling district, West Bengal.
• It began as a peasant revolt against exploitative landlords, demanding land redistribution.
• Key leaders included Charu Majumdar, Kanu Sanyal, and Jangal Santhal.
• Police firing on protesting peasants in May 1967 became the catalytic event.

Ideological Consolidation

• In 1969, the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) was formed.
• The party rejected elections and promoted armed agrarian revolution, inspired by the Chinese model.

Evolution of Naxalism in India

Early Expansion (1970s)

• Spread from West Bengal to Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Gained traction among landless peasants, tribals, and marginalised communities.

State Suppression

• Operation Steeplechase (1971–72) involved coordinated military and police action.
• Arrest and death of Charu Majumdar weakened the original leadership.
• Internal splits and factionalism followed.

Regrouping Phase (1980s–1990s)

• Emergence of new organisations like:
  • People’s War Group (PWG) in Andhra Pradesh
  • Maoist Communist Centre (MCC) in Bihar
• Shift towards a strategy of protracted guerrilla warfare.

Formation of CPI (Maoist) – 2004

• Merger of PWG and MCC led to the formation of Communist Party of India (Maoist).
• Marked consolidation, coordination, and escalation of violence.
• The movement entrenched itself in the Red Corridor.

Phases of Naxalism in India

Phase 1: Emergence (1967–1974)

• Armed peasant uprising and formation of CPI (ML)
• Rejection of constitutional methods
• Severe state repression during Emergency period

Phase 2: Revival and Expansion (1980s–1990s)

• Organised guerrilla warfare
• Expansion across central and eastern India
• Increased recruitment among tribals

Phase 3: Consolidation (2000–Present)

• Formation of People’s Guerrilla Army
• Establishment of parallel administrative structures
• Peak territorial spread followed by gradual decline after 2010
• At its peak, Naxalism affected over 230 districts across 20 states.

Causes of Naxalism in India

Structural and Socio-Economic Factors

• Failure of land reforms and persistent landlessness
• Chronic poverty and unemployment
• Regional and resource-based inequalities

Tribal Alienation

• Displacement due to mining, dams, and industrial projects
• Weak implementation of Forest Rights Act
• Exploitation by contractors and forest officials

Governance Deficits

• Absence of basic services like health, education, roads
• Corruption and administrative neglect
• Weak justice delivery mechanisms

Security-Related Grievances

• Allegations of custodial violence and excesses
• Breakdown of trust between locals and the state

Challenges in Combating Naxalism

Operational Challenges

• Dense forests and difficult terrain
• Guerrilla tactics and surprise ambushes
• Limited intelligence due to local support networks

Developmental Challenges

• Persistent socio-economic grievances
• Slow pace of infrastructure and welfare delivery

Legal and Ethical Constraints

• Balancing counter-insurgency with human rights
• Risk of alienation due to excessive force

Resource Constraints

• Limited manpower and logistics in remote areas
• Inter-state coordination issues

Government Response to Naxalism

Security Measures

• Specialised forces like COBRA, Greyhounds, and Bastariya Battalion
• Inter-state coordination through Unified Command
• Area domination and intelligence-based operations

Developmental Initiatives

• Forest Rights Act, 2006
• Aspirational Districts Programme
• Road, telecom, and banking infrastructure expansion

Rehabilitation and Capacity Building

• Skill development schemes such as ROSHNI
• Surrender and rehabilitation policies for militants

Strategic Framework: SAMADHAN

• Smart leadership
• Actionable intelligence
• Technology-driven operations
• No access to finances
• Holistic development focus

Way Forward 

• India’s response to Left Wing Extremism has increasingly moved beyond a pure security lens to a whole of government model that tightens the security grid, disrupts financing networks, expands road, telecom and banking connectivity, and ensures saturation of welfare delivery in tribal and remote regions. 
• The sharp decline in incidents and casualties since the 2010 peak, along with the contraction of affected geography and rising numbers of surrenders and arrests, indicates that the insurgency has been substantially weakened in both capacity and territorial influence.
• However, the long term sustainability of these gains depends on whether governance permanently fills the space vacated by violence through rights based empowerment, responsive local administration, effective grievance redressal, and livelihood centred development.
•  If security gains are consistently reinforced by inclusive growth and people centric governance, the appeal of extremist ideology will continue to erode. 
• With sustained Centre State coordination, community trust building, and last mile implementation of development schemes, the objective of a Left Wing Extremism free India by 31 March 2026 appears achievable, provided developmental consolidation progresses alongside operational success.