Nanotechnology is the study and manipulation of matter at the nanoscale, typically 1 to 100 nanometers, where materials show new physical, chemical, and biological properties due to size and surface effects. It enables lighter, stronger, smarter materials, advanced nanoelectronics, and expanding applications in medicine, energy, environment, agriculture, textiles, and manufacturing.

What are nanomaterials?

A material is classified as a nanomaterial if it has at least one dimension below 100 nm. At this scale, surface area-to-volume ratio increases sharply, and quantum/size effects can change conductivity, reactivity, strength, colour, and toxicity.

Types of nanomaterials

Inorganic-based nanomaterials

• Generally stable and widely used in industry
• Examples: metal nanoparticles, metal oxides
• Uses: sensors, catalysis, biomedical applications

Organic-based nanomaterials

• Often biodegradable and biocompatible
• Examples: liposomes, dendrimers, layered biopolymers, protein aggregates
• Uses: drug delivery, cosmetics, food applications

Carbon-based nanomaterials

• Known for conductivity and strength-related properties
• Examples: graphene, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes
• Uses: electronics, coatings, composites, sensing, targeted delivery

Composite-based nanomaterials

• Combine materials to enhance strength, conductivity, flexibility, barrier properties
• Examples: graphene-polymer composites, nanotube–quantum dot hybrids
• Uses: energy storage, structural reinforcement, sensors

Applications of nanotechnology

Materials and processes

• Smart fabrics with nanosensors for monitoring
• Self-cleaning coatings for glass and surfaces
• Lightweight armour additives
• Nanocatalysts for faster and cleaner chemical reactions

IT and electronics

• Nanoscale transistors and memory systems
• Flexible electronics for wearables and healthcare devices
• Quantum dot displays and printed electronics
• Improved batteries and storage systems

Biomedicine and healthcare

• Targeted drug delivery via nanocapsules and nanoparticles
• Advanced imaging and diagnostics
• Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine
• Nanoparticle-based vaccine platforms

Energy

• Better fuel efficiency using nanocatalysts
• Reduced friction and improved combustion performance
• CO₂ capture membranes
• Improved solar panels and batteries

Environmental remediation

• Water purification membranes (including graphene-based approaches)
• Nanoparticles for wastewater treatment
• Nanosensors for pollution monitoring

Agriculture and food processing

• Precision farming support and early disease detection
• Controlled release of nutrients and pest protection
• Improved food safety and shelf-life through packaging innovations

Transportation and infrastructure

• Lightweight components using polymer nanocomposites
• Battery improvements and thermal control
• Nano-enabled sensors for safety and performance monitoring

Nanotechnology in India

Institutional and research base

• Early capability building through major research institutions and national programmes
• The Nano Mission (DST) launched in 2007 to strengthen research, capacity, and translation to applications
• Dedicated nanoscience centres created to coordinate work across materials, devices, and systems

Industry ecosystem and linkages

• Growing company participation across pharma, chemicals, and technology sectors
• Incubation support expanding for startups working on prototypes and applications

International collaboration

• Research partnerships and agreements with multiple countries for expertise and joint projects

Key achievements and examples from India

Advanced nanomaterials and devices

• Work on specialised nanomaterials and application centres
• Development of nanoelectronic components and nanoscale computing building blocks in academic research

Healthcare innovations

• Targeted delivery and improved bioavailability formulations using nano-carriers
• Use of computational and platform technologies supporting faster discovery and development pipelines

Water and purification

• Nanoparticle-based filters and low-cost filtration approaches aimed at removing contaminants including heavy metals and micro-pollutants

Defence applications

• Research directions include lightweight armour materials, stealth coatings, and detection technologies

Challenges and concerns

Toxicology and health risks

• Nanoparticles may accumulate in organs and cause toxicity
• Inhalation exposure can trigger respiratory and cardiovascular issues

Long-term safety uncertainty

• Long-duration effects on humans and ecosystems are still being studied
• Bioaccumulation and chronic exposure remain key concerns

Environmental impact

• Nanoscale particles can travel deeper into air, soil, and water systems
• Behaviour and reactions in the environment are not fully predictable

Regulatory gaps

• Standards are evolving, but governance often lags behind innovation
• Need for transparent safety testing, labelling, and disposal protocols

Commercialisation barriers

• Scaling from lab to industry needs high investment and specialised capability
• Quality control and reproducibility at scale can be difficult

Measures needed

• Increased funding for high-impact nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, sensors, and safety research
• Stronger specialised education, training, and industry-ready talent pipelines
• Clear safety guidelines on toxicity assessment, exposure limits, labelling, and disposal
• Deeper public–private collaboration for commercialisation and scaling
• Upgraded research infrastructure and testing facilities
• International partnerships for advanced tooling, standards, and rapid translation