Article 14 of the Indian Constitution guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the laws to all persons within the territory of India.
Meaning of Article 14
Article 14 has two core components, both borrowed from different legal traditions:
- Equality Before Law
- Negative concept
- Implies absence of special privileges in favour of any person
- Everyone, irrespective of status, is subject to ordinary law
- Origin: British legal system (Rule of Law)
- Equal Protection of the Laws
- Positive concept
- Requires the State to treat equals equally and unequals differently
- Allows reasonable classification to achieve justice
- Origin: American Constitution
Scope and Applicability
- Applies to all persons, not just citizens
- Includes foreigners, corporations, and legal persons
- Binds State action (Article 12)
- Applies to legislative, executive, and administrative actions
Reasonable Classification
Article 14 does not prohibit classification, but forbids class legislation.
For a classification to be valid, it must satisfy two conditions:
- Intelligible Differentia
- The classification must be based on clear and distinguishable criteria
- Rational Nexus
- The differentia must have a logical connection with the objective of the law
If either condition fails, the law becomes arbitrary and unconstitutional.
Doctrine of Arbitrariness
- Arbitrary State action is violative of Article 14
- Equality is not merely formal but substantive
- Expanded by judicial interpretation to include fairness and non-arbitrariness
Important Judicial Interpretations
- E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu (1974)
- Equality is antithetical to arbitrariness
- Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)
- Article 14 strikes at arbitrary State action, even without classification
- Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992)
- Affirmed that equality permits affirmative action
- Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017)
- Manifest arbitrariness is a ground to invalidate laws
Exceptions to Equality
Article 14 allows constitutional and functional exceptions, such as:
- President and Governors (Article 361 – limited immunity)
- Parliamentary privileges
- Judicial discretion
- Protective discrimination under Articles 15 and 16
Significance
- Forms the foundation of Fundamental Rights
- Ensures rule of law, fairness, and justice
- Acts as a check on arbitrary governance
- Closely linked with Articles 15, 16, and 21
