Introduction

• Mahmud of Ghazni was a prominent ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, reigning from 998 to 1030 CE
• He transformed Ghazni into a major political, military, and cultural centre of the Islamic world
• His repeated campaigns into the Indian subcontinent made him one of the most consequential figures of early medieval Indian history
• Remembered both for large-scale plunder and for patronage of Persian learning and scholarship

Early Life and Consolidation of Power

• Born in 971 CE at Ghazni in present-day Afghanistan
• Son of Sabuktigin, a former Turkish slave commander and founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty
• Inherited a strong military tradition rooted in Central Asian cavalry warfare
• Strengthened control over Khorasan, Sistan, Ghur, and Khwarezm, stabilising the western frontiers
• Built a disciplined army dominated by fast-moving horse cavalry armed with composite bows

Nature and Objectives of Indian Campaigns

• Conducted around 17 expeditions between 1000 and 1027 CE
• Primary objective was economic plunder, not territorial annexation
• Wealth acquired was used to
  • Finance further military campaigns
  • Maintain a large standing army
  • Patronise scholars, poets, and builders in Ghazni
• Religious motivation existed but conversion was not a systematic goal

Strategic Orientation towards India

• After securing Central Asia, Mahmud turned towards Punjab and north-western India
• The region was politically fragmented, especially after the decline of the Hindu Shahi dynasty
• Indian temples and urban centres were repositories of immense accumulated wealth
• Campaigns were seasonal raids, not long-term administrative conquests

Major Indian Expeditions

• Defeat of Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala near Peshawar, leading to collapse of Shahi resistance
• Continued conflict with Anandapala, culminating in defeat at the Battle of Waihind
• Raids on Multan, Bhatinda, Nagarkot, and Punjab hill states
• Campaigns against Mathura and Kanauj, important political and religious centres
• Famous raid on Somnath temple (1025 CE) in Gujarat, noted for large-scale plunder
• Did not establish permanent rule deep inside India beyond Punjab

Military and Political Consequences

• Destruction of the Hindu Shahi Kingdom, leaving north-west India exposed
• Exposed lack of political unity among Indian rulers
• Demonstrated the military superiority of Central Asian cavalry tactics over fragmented Indian forces
• Opened north-western passes as a recurring invasion route for later Turkish and Afghan rulers

Economic Impact

• Large-scale transfer of wealth from Indian temples and cities to Ghazni
• Temporary weakening of several north Indian kingdoms
• Ghazni emerged as one of the richest cities of the Islamic world

Cultural and Intellectual Patronage

• Used plundered wealth to patronise learning and arts
• Ghazni became a major centre of Persian culture

Prominent figures at his court

• Firdausi, author of Shahnameh
• Al-Biruni, scholar and author of Kitab-ul-Hind, a detailed study of Indian society, science, and religion

Death 

• Died in 1030 CE, reportedly after prolonged illness
• Remembered as
  • A ruthless raider in Indian historical memory
  • A powerful empire-builder in Central Asian history
  • A major patron of Persian literature and scholarship
• His campaigns marked a turning point, making north-west India vulnerable to future Turkic invasions