Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) refers to procedures involving the partial or total removal of external female genitalia, or other injury to female genital organs, for non-medical reasons. It is recognised internationally as a violation of the rights of women and girls.
FGM has no health benefits. It is a harmful practice linked with gender inequality, control over female sexuality, social pressure, child rights violations and violence against women. The World Health Organization states that more than 230 million girls and women alive today have undergone FGM in countries where the practice is concentrated.
Meaning and Types
FGM is usually performed on girls between infancy and the age of 15, though it may also occur later in some communities. It is not a medical procedure and is often justified through custom, purity, marriageability, family honour or social acceptance.
WHO classifies FGM into four broad types:
- Type I: partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and/or prepuce
- Type II: partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and labia minora, with or without removal of labia majora
- Type III: narrowing of the vaginal opening by creating a covering seal, also called infibulation
- Type IV: all other harmful procedures to female genitalia for non-medical reasons, such as pricking, piercing, scraping or cauterisation
The severity varies, but all forms are considered harmful.
Distribution and Social Context
FGM is concentrated in parts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia, and also exists among some migrant communities in Europe, North America and Australia.
UNICEF’s 2024 global estimates show that more than 230 million girls and women have undergone FGM, with the largest number in Africa, followed by Asia and the Middle East. UNICEF also notes that this represents an increase of around 30 million compared with estimates released eight years earlier, mainly because progress has not kept pace with population growth in affected countries.
The practice is sustained by social norms. In many communities, families continue it not because they are unaware of pain, but because refusing it may lead to social exclusion, reduced marriage prospects or community pressure.
Health Consequences
FGM causes immediate and long-term physical, psychological and reproductive harm.
Immediate risks include severe pain, bleeding, infection, shock, injury to nearby organs and even death.
Long-term complications may include chronic pain, urinary problems, menstrual difficulties, sexual dysfunction, childbirth complications, infertility, trauma, anxiety and depression. WHO states that FGM harms healthy female genital tissue and interferes with the natural functions of girls’ and women’s bodies.
The medicalisation of FGM is also a concern. When health workers perform it, the practice may appear safer, but it remains a human rights violation and still causes harm.
Human Rights and Legal Framework
FGM violates several rights, including the right to health, bodily integrity, equality, dignity, freedom from violence and rights of the child.
It is linked with international frameworks such as:
- Convention on the Rights of the Child
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
- Sustainable Development Goal 5.3, which calls for elimination of harmful practices, including FGM and child marriage
Many countries have passed laws banning FGM, but legal prohibition alone is not enough. Enforcement is difficult when the practice is deeply embedded in social norms.
India-Specific Relevance
In India, FGM is reported mainly among sections of the Dawoodi Bohra community, where it is often referred to as khatna or khafz.
India does not have a separate national law specifically criminalising FGM. However, the practice can be examined under broader constitutional and legal protections related to bodily integrity, child protection, dignity, health and gender equality.
The issue raises a difficult constitutional question: how to balance religious or cultural practice with fundamental rights of women and girls.
From a rights-based perspective, any practice that causes non-consensual bodily harm to a child cannot be defended merely as tradition.
Way Forward
Ending FGM requires more than criminalisation.
A strong response should include legal clarity, survivor support, community dialogue, medical awareness and protection of children at risk.
The most effective approach is usually a combination of:
- clear legal prohibition
- community-led abandonment
- education of parents and religious/community leaders
- training of health workers
- counselling and support for survivors
- protection mechanisms for girls at risk
- public messaging that separates dignity and identity from harmful cutting
The goal should be to end the harmful practice without stigmatising entire communities.
Conclusion
Female Genital Mutilation is a harmful non-medical practice that violates the dignity, health and bodily autonomy of women and girls.
It has no health benefit and can cause lifelong physical and psychological harm.
The challenge is not only legal, but social. Sustainable elimination requires law, awareness, survivor-centred support and community-level change.
