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UPSC Mains 2026 Papers

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UPSC MAINS 2026

GS 3

Attempt all 20 questions and upload your answer PDF question-wise.

Q1

What do you mean by Digital Rupee? In this context, explain the working and progress of India's Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC). (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

The Digital Rupee (e₹) is sovereign digital money issued by the Reserve Bank of India. Unlike UPI, which transfers commercial-bank deposits, e₹ is itself a direct liability of the central bank and combines features of cash with programmable digital settlement.

KEYWORDS  CBDC • Sovereign digital money • Tokenisation • Programmability • Settlement finality • Offline CBDC • Financial inclusion

• Retail e₹ uses digital wallets for person-to-person and person-to-merchant payments; wholesale e₹ is designed for settlement in financial markets.

• The retail pilot began on 1 December 2022; pilots have expanded to programmability, offline use and targeted payment use-cases.

• Potential gains include lower cash-management cost, faster settlement, reduced counterparty risk and more efficient cross-border remittances.

• Key concerns are privacy, cyber-security, bank disintermediation and ensuring that CBDC complements rather than crowds out cash/UPI.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  RBI CBDC Concept Note; CBDC-R and CBDC-W pilots; Digital Payments strategy; interoperability with existing digital-payment infrastructure.

DATA / FACT:  RBI reported e₹ in circulation at roughly ₹772 crore at end-March 2026, with policy emphasis shifting from transaction-volume targets to sustainable use-cases.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Programmable e₹ pilots can earmark funds for defined purposes such as agricultural inputs or DBT-linked expenditure, reducing diversion while preserving digital auditability.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  BIS Project mBridge and other cross-border CBDC experiments show the potential for faster and cheaper international settlements; several central banks are testing offline and privacy-preserving designs.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “UPI is a payment rail; e₹ is money itself.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should build e₹ as a privacy-conscious complement to cash and UPI, with offline functionality, interoperability and cross-border capability - supporting inclusive digital finance under SDG 8.10 while preserving monetary and financial stability.

Official / authoritative sources: Reserve Bank of India; RBI Annual Report 2025-26; RBI CBDC Concept Note; BIS.

Q2

Examine the view that financial inclusion is an integral part of social and economic inclusion in a country like India. Also throw light on the usefulness of the RBI's Financial Inclusion Index. (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

Financial inclusion means affordable access to useful banking, credit, insurance, pension and payment services. In India, exclusion from formal finance often overlaps with poverty, gender disadvantage and informality; hence financial inclusion is a gateway to wider social and economic inclusion.

KEYWORDS  Financial deepening • Last-mile banking • JAM Trinity • Formalisation • Credit inclusion • Financial literacy • Economic agency

• Bank accounts enable DBT and reduce dependence on intermediaries; formal credit supports enterprise and asset creation.

• Insurance and pensions improve resilience against health, crop, income and old-age shocks.

• Digital payments create transaction histories that can expand access to formal credit, but dormant accounts and digital exclusion remain concerns.

• The RBI Financial Inclusion Index tracks not just access but also usage and quality, making it more useful than a simple account-count indicator.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  PMJDY; JAM Trinity; DBT; RBI National Strategy for Financial Inclusion; Business Correspondent model; financial literacy centres.

DATA / FACT:  PMJDY has crossed 57 crore accounts, while RBI's FI-Index rose to about 70 in March 2026, reflecting progress across access, usage and quality dimensions.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  JAM + PMJDY + DBT converted welfare transfers into formal financial participation and gave millions of women direct control over state benefits.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Kenya's M-Pesa demonstrates how low-cost mobile finance can widen inclusion; India's DPI model adds interoperable identity, payments and bank-account infrastructure.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Financial access becomes inclusion only when access creates economic agency.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  The next stage should move from bank-account inclusion to credit, insurance, pension and investment inclusion, with consumer protection and digital literacy - advancing SDGs 1, 5 and 8 and the RBI's inclusion strategy.

Official / authoritative sources: RBI; Department of Financial Services; PMJDY Dashboard; Ministry of Finance.

 

Q3

Describe the various Technology Missions initiated in Indian agriculture and examine their role in food security.
(150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

Technology Missions use mission-mode coordination of research, inputs, extension, processing and markets to solve specific agricultural bottlenecks. In India they helped move policy from generic input support towards crop- and problem-specific productivity enhancement.

KEYWORDS  Mission-mode agriculture • Technology diffusion • Yield gap • Import substitution • Nutrition security • Climate-smart agriculture

• Technology Mission on Oilseeds (1986) promoted improved seeds, extension, processing and price support - associated with the Yellow Revolution.

• Technology Mission on Cotton improved productivity and quality; horticulture missions expanded high-value crops in the North-East and Himalayan regions.

• Later mission-mode programmes such as NFSM, MIDH and oilseed/pulse missions extended the approach to cereals, pulses, horticulture and edible oils.

• These missions improve food security through higher output, crop diversification, reduced import dependence and stronger post-harvest value chains.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Technology Mission on Oilseeds; Technology Mission on Cotton; National Food Security Mission; MIDH; NMEO-Oilseeds; Digital Agriculture Mission.

DATA / FACT:  India's foodgrain production is estimated at roughly 376 million tonnes in 2025-26, reflecting the long transition from scarcity to a diversified food-security system.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Oilseeds mission interventions combined technology, processing and market support, raising domestic production and demonstrating the value of crop-specific mission design.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Brazil's EMBRAPA links agricultural R&D with tropical farming systems; India can similarly integrate public research with farmer-level technology diffusion.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Food security is increasingly a technology-security issue.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  The next generation of missions should combine biotechnology, AI, satellite data, climate-resilient seeds and post-harvest technology - moving from a Green Revolution towards an Evergreen Revolution aligned with SDGs 2 and 13.

Official / authoritative sources: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare; ICAR; Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare; Economic Survey.

Q4

Explain the factors responsible for inefficiency of agri-produce marketing. How e-commerce helps to reduce inefficiency of agri-produce marketing? Explain. (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

Agricultural marketing is inefficient when fragmented production, weak storage and assaying, information asymmetry and multiple intermediaries prevent farmers from discovering competitive prices and selling at the right place and time.

KEYWORDS  Information asymmetry • APMC fragmentation • Price discovery • Distress sale • Transaction cost • Market integration • Contestable markets

• Small marketable surplus, multiple intermediaries and weak bargaining power reduce farmers' share in the consumer rupee.

• Poor cold chain, warehousing, grading and assaying force distress sale of perishables and reduce quality-linked price discovery.

• Digital markets widen the buyer pool, publish prices, enable e-bidding and direct payments, reducing search and transaction costs.

• E-commerce works best when combined with FPO aggregation, logistics, quality testing and warehouse-receipt finance.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  e-NAM; Agriculture Infrastructure Fund; FPO scheme; WDRA/e-NWR; Model APMC reforms; digital market integration.

DATA / FACT:  By March 2026, e-NAM had linked about 1,656 mandis, registered around 1.8 crore farmers and facilitated cumulative trade of roughly ₹4.8 lakh crore.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  e-NAM plus electronic Negotiable Warehouse Receipts allows farmers to store produce, obtain credit and sell later instead of accepting immediate distress prices.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  China's rural e-commerce platforms and digital logistics networks show how small producers can be connected to national demand when digital markets are backed by fulfilment infrastructure.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “The farmer needs not merely a market, but a contestable market.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  e-NAM, FPOs, interoperable e-commerce, cold chains and WDRA warehouses should converge towards a genuine One Nation-One Agricultural Market, supporting farmer income, SDG 2 and efficient food supply chains.

Official / authoritative sources: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare; e-NAM; WDRA; Economic Survey.

Q5

Explain by giving two examples, how biotechnology has helped the Indian farmers in processing their perishable crops. (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

Biotechnology helps farmers manage perishability by controlling ripening and microbial spoilage and by converting short-lived crops into shelf-stable, higher-value products. This reduces post-harvest losses and expands the market radius of fruits and vegetables.

KEYWORDS  Bio-preservation • Shelf-life extension • Enzyme technology • Post-harvest biotechnology • Value addition • Bio-processing

• Example 1: biotechnology-based ripening and senescence control can delay deterioration in fruits and vegetables, allowing longer storage and transport.

• Example 2: microbial/enzyme processing converts perishable jackfruit, citrus or banana into beverages, concentrates, ready-to-cook products, pectin and other shelf-stable goods.

• Processing raises value per kilogram and allows farmer groups to sell beyond the harvest glut period.

• Benefits are greatest when biotechnology is integrated with food safety, cold chain, packaging and farmer-producer organisations.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Department of Biotechnology programmes; PMFME; Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana; Operation Greens; food-processing clusters.

DATA / FACT:  India is one of the world's largest producers of fruits and vegetables; horticulture output now exceeds foodgrain output in aggregate volume, magnifying the importance of post-harvest processing.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  DBT-supported North-East bioresource initiatives have demonstrated value-added products from jackfruit, citrus and banana, converting highly seasonal produce into marketable processed goods.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  The Netherlands combines food biotechnology, controlled storage and advanced cold-chain systems to minimise post-harvest losses and maximise value from high-value horticulture.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Biotechnology converts perishability from a liability into value addition.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  DBT, PMFME, cold-chain infrastructure and farmer collectives should build decentralised bio-processing clusters, improving farmer realisation while supporting SDGs 2, 9 and 12 and a circular bio-economy.

Official / authoritative sources: Department of Biotechnology; Ministry of Food Processing Industries; ICAR; Ministry of Agriculture.

Q6

Distinguish between a Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) and a thermal nuclear reactor. In the context of the first indigenously developed prototype FBR at Kalpakkam, explain the term criticality. What are its implications for the clean energy future of our country? (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

A thermal reactor sustains fission mainly with slow neutrons, while a Fast Breeder Reactor uses fast neutrons and is designed to generate more fissile material than it consumes. India's 500 MWe PFBR at Kalpakkam is the bridge to Stage-II of the three-stage nuclear programme.

KEYWORDS  Fast neutrons • Breeding ratio • Criticality • Closed fuel cycle • Pu-239 • U-238 • Thorium pathway • Baseload

• Thermal reactors generally use moderators such as light/heavy water; FBRs avoid moderation and typically use liquid sodium coolant.

• FBRs convert fertile U-238 into fissile Pu-239, extracting much more energy from uranium resources.

• Criticality means a controlled self-sustaining chain reaction in which each generation of fissions sustains the next.

• PFBR strengthens indigenous fuel-cycle capability and supports later transition to the thorium-U-233 stage.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  India's Three-Stage Nuclear Programme; Atomic Energy Act framework; Nuclear Energy Mission; long-term expansion of indigenous nuclear capacity.

DATA / FACT:  The 500 MWe PFBR at Kalpakkam achieved first criticality in April 2026, a major milestone in India's fast-reactor programme.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  PFBR demonstrates indigenous design, sodium cooling, mixed-oxide fuel and closed-fuel-cycle capability at commercial scale.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Russia operates commercial fast reactors such as the BN series, showing the role of fast reactors in fuel utilisation and low-carbon baseload power.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “For India, breeding fuel is also breeding energy security.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  PFBR can support reliable low-carbon electricity, reduce long-term fuel constraints and advance the thorium pathway. Strong safety regulation, waste management and public confidence are essential as India pursues its 2047 nuclear-capacity ambition and Net Zero 2070.

Official / authoritative sources: Department of Atomic Energy; BHAVINI; Atomic Energy Regulatory Board; PIB.

Q7

Discuss how the contradiction between rapid infrastructure development and disaster-risk reduction in ecologically-sensitive areas of India can be managed, with suitable examples. (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

Rapid infrastructure and disaster-risk reduction need not be contradictory if development is risk-informed. In ecologically sensitive regions, roads, hydropower and tourism can create economic opportunity but can also amplify landslide, flood and subsidence risks when carrying capacity is ignored.

KEYWORDS  Risk-sensitive planning • Carrying capacity • Cumulative EIA • Nature-based solutions • Build Back Better • Resilient infrastructure

• Use multi-hazard zonation and geological assessments before project approval, rather than after disasters occur.

• Adopt cumulative basin/landscape-level EIA for clusters of dams, roads and urban projects instead of isolated project assessment.

• Enforce slope stabilisation, scientific muck disposal, drainage, no-build zones and mountain-specific construction standards.

• Use ecosystem restoration, resilient design and early-warning systems to reduce residual risk.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Disaster Management Act; National Disaster Management Plan; EIA framework; CDRI; GSI landslide mapping; state disaster-management plans.

DATA / FACT:  A large share of India's Himalayan and Western Ghats settlements and infrastructure lies in multi-hazard terrain, making risk-informed investment crucial to protect development gains.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Joshimath subsidence and the 2023 Sikkim-Teesta GLOF illustrate how infrastructure, geological fragility and climate extremes can combine into compound risk.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Japan integrates strict building codes, hazard maps, redundancy and continuous monitoring into infrastructure planning; the Sendai Framework prioritises risk reduction and Build Back Better.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Infrastructure cannot be called development if it manufactures future disasters.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should move from rapid construction to resilient construction through CDRI standards, carrying-capacity studies, cumulative EIAs and climate-risk screening - aligning infrastructure with Sendai, SDGs 9/11/13 and adaptation priorities.

Official / authoritative sources: NDMA; Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change; GSI; CDRI; Sendai Framework.

Q8

Discuss the aim and goals of Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Mention India's commitments and initiatives to achieve the goals and targets of this framework giving suitable examples. (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

Adopted at CBD COP15 in 2022, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) provides 4 long-term goals for 2050 and 23 action targets for 2030 under the vision of living in harmony with nature.

KEYWORDS  30x30 • Ecosystem restoration • Nature-positive economy • Biodiversity finance • OECMs • Mainstreaming biodiversity • Access and benefit sharing

• Target 3 calls for effective conservation of at least 30% of land, inland waters, coastal areas and oceans by 2030.

• Target 2 seeks restoration of at least 30% of degraded ecosystems; other targets address pollution, invasive species, harmful incentives and corporate disclosure.

• India updated its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to align national targets with the KMGBF.

• Implementation must combine protected areas with community rights, local biodiversity governance and sustainable livelihoods.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Biological Diversity Act framework; updated NBSAP; Green India Mission; MISHTI; Amrit Dharohar; Project Tiger/Elephant; Biodiversity Management Committees.

DATA / FACT:  India has established around 2.7 lakh Biodiversity Management Committees and a similar scale of People's Biodiversity Registers, providing a large local institutional base for biodiversity governance.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  MISHTI and Amrit Dharohar link mangrove/wetland conservation with livelihoods, illustrating the biodiversity-climate-development nexus.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  CBD COP16 in Cali advanced implementation, biodiversity finance and monitoring debates; KMGBF also complements UNFCCC mitigation/adaptation and SDGs 14 and 15.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Living in harmony with nature.” - KMGBF 2050 vision.

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should pursue 30x30 through ecologically representative conservation, restoration finance and community stewardship, integrating biodiversity accounting into Viksit Bharat while ensuring convergence with climate adaptation and SDGs 14/15.

Official / authoritative sources: Convention on Biological Diversity; MoEFCC; National Biodiversity Authority; CBD COP15/COP16 documents.

 

Q9

Explain how fake news and disinformation pose threat to Internal Security and Public Order in Indian context? In this regard, discuss salient features of amendments in respect of Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021. (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

Fake news becomes an internal-security threat when false or manipulated information is weaponised to trigger communal tension, panic, radicalisation, distrust in institutions or cognitive warfare. Generative AI and deepfakes increase both the speed and plausibility of such operations.

KEYWORDS  Information warfare • Deepfake • Cognitive security • Synthetic media • Algorithmic amplification • Information integrity

• Disinformation can provoke riots, interfere with elections, spread false military claims and aid extremist recruitment.

• Deepfakes allow convincing impersonation of leaders, security officials and public institutions at very low cost.

• The 2026 changes strengthen due diligence around synthetically generated information, including disclosure/labelling and provenance-related safeguards for qualifying content.

• Regulation must remain proportionate so that counter-disinformation measures do not become broad censorship of lawful speech under Article 19.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  IT Act, 2000; IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 as amended; CERT-In; cyber-crime coordination mechanisms.

DATA / FACT:  India's very large social-media and messaging-user base makes high-velocity misinformation a public-order multiplier, especially during communal incidents, elections and national-security crises.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Fabricated videos and false operational claims during security crises can generate panic and amplify hostile information operations before official clarification reaches citizens.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  EU AI Act includes transparency obligations for certain AI-generated/deepfake content; UNESCO promotes information-integrity principles and media literacy.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “In the digital age, information integrity is part of national security.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India needs platform accountability, provenance standards, rapid official communication, independent fact-checking and mass digital literacy - combining cognitive security with Article 19 safeguards and SDG 16.

Official / authoritative sources: MeitY; IT Rules; CERT-In; Ministry of Home Affairs; UNESCO.

Q10

Ladakh is strategically located between China and Pakistan. As a measure to win hearts and minds of locals, discuss the Border Area Development Programmes (BADP) by the Central Government and civic actions by the Army. Also discuss demand of promulgation of provision of the Sixth Schedule of Constitution for Ladakh. (150 words | 10 marks)

Value Addition

For Ladakh, development is inseparable from national security. Sparse population, difficult terrain and proximity to China and Pakistan make local livelihoods, connectivity and trust essential to maintaining resilient frontier communities.

KEYWORDS  Borderland governance • Winning hearts and minds • Development-security nexus • Vibrant Villages • Sixth Schedule • Local autonomy

• BADP/Vibrant Villages support roads, telecom, health, education, livelihoods, tourism and basic services in remote border settlements.

• Army civic-action programmes under Operation Sadbhavana include schools, medical camps, veterinary assistance, skill development and youth engagement.

• Local groups seek Sixth Schedule-type safeguards for tribal identity, land, culture, ecology and local employment.

• Any institutional design must balance local autonomy with Ladakh's Union Territory status, strategic requirements and ecological fragility.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Border Area Development Programme; Vibrant Villages Programme; Operation Sadbhavana; Article 244(2) and Sixth Schedule; Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils.

DATA / FACT:  BADP has supported tens of thousands of projects in border regions, while Vibrant Villages increasingly treats frontier settlements as development hubs rather than remote outposts.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Army-supported educational and health interventions in remote Ladakhi settlements illustrate how civic action can create trust and human security alongside physical defence.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  International borderland experience shows that populated, economically viable frontier communities are an important layer of territorial resilience and early warning.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  Border villages should be treated as India's “first villages”, not its last villages.

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  Ladakh needs security plus constitutional consultation, ecological safeguards and locally owned growth. BADP/VVP, civic action and credible autonomy mechanisms should make residents stakeholders in frontier security and Viksit Bharat.

Official / authoritative sources: Ministry of Home Affairs; Ministry of Defence; PIB; Constitution of India; Ladakh Administration.

 

Q11

Explain the key challenges for India's energy security. What measures do you suggest for ensuring energy security along with economic growth and sustainability? (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

Energy security is the ability to ensure reliable, affordable and sustainable energy despite supply shocks. India faces a three-way challenge: rapidly growing demand, high fossil-fuel import exposure and the need to decarbonise without constraining development.

KEYWORDS  Energy trilemma • Import dependence • Strategic reserves • Grid flexibility • Just transition • Critical minerals • Energy diversification

• High crude-oil import dependence exposes India to geopolitical shocks, exchange-rate risk and maritime chokepoints.

• Coal provides reliability but creates air-pollution and climate challenges; renewable intermittency requires storage, transmission and flexible generation.

• Critical-mineral and clean-tech supply chains create new external dependencies even as fossil dependence declines.

• DISCOM finances, transmission bottlenecks and unequal energy access can slow the transition.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  500 GW non-fossil ambition; National Green Hydrogen Mission; Nuclear Energy Mission; Strategic Petroleum Reserves; National Critical Mineral Mission; ethanol blending; PAT and energy-efficiency programmes.

DATA / FACT:  India crossed roughly 300 GW of non-fossil installed electricity capacity in 2026, while crude-oil import dependence remains close to nine-tenths of domestic consumption.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Rapid renewable expansion in Rajasthan/Gujarat combined with Green Energy Corridors shows how generation must be paired with transmission and storage.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  COP28 called for tripling global renewable capacity and doubling the rate of energy-efficiency improvement by 2030; IEA energy-security practice emphasises diversification, reserves and demand efficiency.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Energy transition for India must simultaneously be an energy-security transition.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should combine Atmanirbharta, diversified oil/gas sourcing, renewables, nuclear, storage, efficiency and critical-mineral security. The goal is affordable growth today with a just transition towards SDG 7, energy independence and Net Zero 2070.

Official / authoritative sources: Ministry of Power; MNRE; Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas; CEA; Economic Survey; UNFCCC/COP28.

Q12

How are startups in India promoting entrepreneurship, innovation and employment? Discuss the global and domestic challenges in their working and suggest suitable measures to overcome these challenges. (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

Startups convert ideas, technology and risk capital into new firms, markets and jobs. They are increasingly important to India's shift from factor-driven growth towards innovation-led productivity, especially in fintech, space, AI, agritech, health and clean technology.

KEYWORDS  Creative destruction • Deep-tech • Venture capital • Innovation ecosystem • Scale-up capital • Patient capital • Entrepreneurship

• Startups create direct skilled jobs and indirect jobs through suppliers, platforms and new services.

• They commercialise technology faster than traditional firms and often solve local problems through low-cost digital models.

• Domestic constraints include funding cycles, complex compliance, weak university-industry links, shortage of patient capital and difficult public procurement.

• Global challenges include protectionism, expensive capital, AI/data regulation, semiconductor dependence and geopolitical fragmentation.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Startup India; Fund of Funds for Startups; Startup India Seed Fund; Atal Innovation Mission; IN-SPACe; Digital India; IndiaAI Mission.

DATA / FACT:  By March 2026 India had more than 2.2 lakh DPIIT-recognised startups, associated with over 23 lakh direct jobs; a large share of recognised startups have women directors/partners.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Private space firms such as Skyroot illustrate how regulatory opening, IN-SPACe and indigenous engineering can create entirely new entrepreneurial sectors.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Israel's Yozma programme used public capital to crowd in private venture funds; the US SBIR model uses government procurement to support innovation-intensive small firms.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Startups convert demographic scale into innovation scale.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should evolve from a startup nation to a scale-up nation through patient deep-tech capital, research-commercialisation bridges, innovation procurement, regulatory sandboxes and stronger IP ecosystems - supporting SDGs 8/9 and Viksit Bharat 2047.

Official / authoritative sources: DPIIT; Startup India; Ministry of Commerce & Industry; Economic Survey; NITI Aayog.

Q13

How has Indian agriculture been transformed from food scarcity to food surplus? Explain the various government policies implemented for diversification of Indian agriculture. (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

India moved from the “ship-to-mouth” food dependence of the 1960s to broad foodgrain self-sufficiency through technology, irrigation, procurement, research and institutional support. The contemporary challenge is diversification from cereal quantity towards nutrition, income and climate resilience.

KEYWORDS  Green Revolution • Food sovereignty • Buffer stocks • Diversification • High-value agriculture • Nutrition security • Evergreen Revolution

• HYV seeds, irrigation, fertilisers, extension, MSP and FCI procurement raised wheat and rice productivity and created buffer stocks.

• ICAR research and public investment reduced dependence on imported food while the PDS/NFSA strengthened consumption security.

• Diversification policies promote horticulture, pulses, oilseeds, millets, livestock, fisheries and agro-processing.

• Diversification is also ecological: cereal monocultures in water-stressed regions create groundwater depletion, residue burning and soil imbalance.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  MIDH; National Food Security Mission; NMEO-Oilseeds; Shree Anna/millet promotion; PM Matsya Sampada; National Livestock Mission; PMKSY; Crop Diversification Programme; FPOs and PMFME.

DATA / FACT:  India's foodgrain output is estimated at around 376 million tonnes in 2025-26, while horticulture has emerged as a major contributor to agricultural value and nutrition.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Punjab-Haryana's paddy-wheat system secured national food supplies but generated groundwater and residue-management stress, showing why region-specific diversification is now essential.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Israel's precision irrigation and high-value horticulture show how water productivity can support farm incomes; Brazil demonstrates research-led crop diversification at scale.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “India's next agricultural revolution must maximise nutrition and income - not merely tonnes.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  Policy should progress from Food Security 1.0 (calories) to Food Security 2.0 (nutrition, income and resilience), using diversified procurement, water-smart crops, processing and markets to advance SDGs 2, 6, 12 and 13.

Official / authoritative sources: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare; ICAR; FCI; Economic Survey; Ministry of Food Processing Industries.

Q14

Discuss the different types of subsidies and supports provided by the Government of India to agricultural sector. Examine the related issues pertaining to Agreement on Agriculture of World Trade Organisation (WTO). (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

Agricultural support in India serves food security, farmer income, price stability and rural development. WTO rules, however, distinguish trade-distorting support from minimally distorting public support, creating tension between domestic welfare objectives and multilateral trade disciplines.

KEYWORDS  AMS • Green Box • Amber Box • De minimis • Public stockholding • Peace Clause • Food security • Trade distortion

• Input support includes fertiliser, electricity, irrigation, seeds and interest subvention; price support includes MSP/procurement.

• Income/risk support includes PM-KISAN, crop insurance and concessional credit; public-good support includes R&D, extension, infrastructure and irrigation.

• WTO Agreement on Agriculture rests on market access, domestic support and export competition.

• Developing countries have a 10% de minimis threshold, while qualifying Green Box support is generally exempt from reduction commitments.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  MSP and public procurement; fertiliser subsidy; PM-KISAN; KCC/interest subvention; PMFBY; Agriculture Infrastructure Fund; WTO Agreement on Agriculture.

DATA / FACT:  WTO subsidy calculations for public stockholding still rely on 1986-88 external reference prices, which India argues exaggerate current support when compared with modern administered prices.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  The Bali Peace Clause protects qualifying public-stockholding programmes from legal challenge pending a permanent solution, reflecting India's insistence that food security cannot be treated only as trade distortion.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Developed economies provide large farm supports through decoupled income payments, insurance and environmental programmes, many structured within Green Box rules.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Trade rules must discipline distortion without disciplining food security.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should continue seeking a permanent WTO solution on public stockholding while rebalancing inefficient input subsidies towards Green Box-compatible R&D, climate-smart irrigation, extension and ecosystem services - supporting SDGs 2 and 13.

Official / authoritative sources: WTO; Ministry of Commerce & Industry; Ministry of Agriculture; Department of Food & Public Distribution.

Q15

Mention salient features of Mission Drishti. Discuss the imaging techniques used in the satellite launched on 3rd May 2026. Why is it being considered world's first satellite of its kind? (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

Mission Drishti was a private Indian Earth-observation mission built around an “OptoSAR” concept: combining optical/multispectral imaging and Synthetic Aperture Radar on the same platform to provide complementary information under varying light and weather conditions.

KEYWORDS  OptoSAR • Sensor fusion • Multispectral imaging • Synthetic Aperture Radar • Earth observation • Dual-use space technology • Space weather

• Optical/multispectral sensors record reflected sunlight and provide intuitive, spectrally rich images but are constrained by darkness and cloud cover.

• SAR actively transmits microwave energy and measures backscatter, enabling day-night and all-weather observation useful for floods, soil moisture, terrain and maritime monitoring.

• Co-locating both sensors can provide near-coincident observations, reducing the temporal mismatch that occurs when optical and radar data come from different satellites.

• Applications include agriculture, disaster response, climate monitoring, maritime domain awareness and strategic surveillance.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Indian Space Policy 2023; IN-SPACe; private-sector participation in Earth observation; geospatial-data reforms; disaster-management and agriculture use-cases.

DATA / FACT:  The roughly 190-kg satellite was launched on 3 May 2026. Mission reporting later indicated a spacecraft anomaly after severe space-weather conditions, making resilience itself a major technological lesson.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Mission Drishti demonstrates the new role of private Indian space firms in building end-to-end Earth-observation capability rather than only supplying components to public missions.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Combining optical and SAR data is common analytically, but integrating both operational imaging modes on a compact private satellite platform was presented as a world-first mission architecture. Space-weather hardening is a growing global priority.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “OptoSAR seeks to combine optical clarity with radar certainty.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  Mission Drishti should be treated as a learning platform for resilient spacecraft, sensor fusion and private geospatial services. IN-SPACe-led innovation can strengthen agriculture, climate resilience and disaster management under SDGs 9, 11 and 13.

Official / authoritative sources: IN-SPACe; Department of Space/ISRO; GalaxEye mission information; Ministry of Science & Technology.

Q16

What is agentic Artificial Intelligence (AI)? Explain its working. Describe its applications with suitable examples. Discuss the advantages, risks and challenges associated with agentic AI systems. (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

Agentic AI refers to systems that can pursue goals through planning, reasoning and autonomous tool use rather than merely generating an answer. The defining shift is from “AI that responds” to “AI that can decide and act within delegated boundaries.”

KEYWORDS  AI agents • Autonomy • Planning • Tool use • Memory • Multi-agent systems • Human-in-the-loop • Least privilege

• Typical loop: goal -> perceive context -> plan -> select tools/APIs -> execute -> observe results -> re-plan.

• Applications include coding/testing, customer-service resolution, cyber defence, supply-chain optimisation, research, administrative workflows and personalised education.

• Benefits include 24x7 operation, multi-step automation, rapid scaling and personalised decisions.

• Risks include hallucinated actions, prompt injection, excessive permissions, cascading errors, data leakage, opaque liability and labour displacement.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  IndiaAI Mission; DPDP Act framework; responsible-AI principles; sectoral cyber-security rules; government AI procurement and audit requirements.

DATA / FACT:  Rapid deployment of foundation models, API-enabled agents and enterprise automation is shifting AI risk from content generation towards autonomous action and access control.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  A coding agent can read a repository, write code, run tests and propose fixes autonomously - demonstrating both productivity gains and the danger of excessive system permissions.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  NIST and other standards bodies are developing AI-agent security/identity approaches; the EU AI Act provides a risk-based regulatory environment for high-risk AI systems.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Generative AI answers; agentic AI can act.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should adopt human-in-command design, least-privilege permissions, secure agent identity, audit trails and red-teaming. Trustworthy agentic AI can raise productivity under SDGs 8/9 while strong safeguards preserve privacy, safety and accountability.

Official / authoritative sources: MeitY; IndiaAI Mission; NIST; OECD AI Principles; Digital Personal Data Protection framework.

Q17

What are the challenges to solid waste management in India? Discuss the governmental policy framework on solid waste management. Discuss the success/failure cases of Delhi and Indore cities highlighting the salient feature of their solid waste management initiatives. (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

India's solid-waste problem is driven less by the absence of regulation than by weak source segregation, municipal capacity, processing markets and citizen compliance. The key transition is from a linear collect-and-dump system towards a circular resource-recovery model.

KEYWORDS  Circular economy • Source segregation • Polluter pays • EPR • Biomethanation • Material recovery • Legacy waste • Methane

• Mixed waste lowers recycling value, raises processing cost and drives landfill dependence.

• Municipal constraints include weak user charges, fragmented contracts, inadequate land, poor data and exclusion of informal waste workers.

• Organic waste in landfills generates methane, while leachate and fires create health and environmental risks.

• Policy increasingly emphasises segregation, bulk-waste-generator responsibility, recovery, processing and environmental compensation.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Solid Waste Management Rules, 2026; Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban 2.0; Extended Producer Responsibility for relevant waste streams; waste-to-compost/biogas and legacy-dumpsite remediation.

DATA / FACT:  India generates well over one lakh tonnes of municipal solid waste daily; the policy challenge is increasingly about scientific processing and material recovery rather than collection alone.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Indore: high source segregation, door-to-door collection, GPS monitoring, biomethanation/Bio-CNG and citizen participation. Delhi: Ghazipur, Bhalswa and Okhla legacy dumpsites illustrate landfill dependence and fragmented metropolitan governance.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  South Korea uses mandatory food-waste segregation and volume/weight-based charging; several European cities use pay-as-you-throw and high material-recovery rates.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Waste becomes a problem when materials lose their circular pathway.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  Swachh Bharat 2.0 should move cities from collect-and-dump to segregate-recover-recycle, with user charges, informal-worker integration and methane reduction - advancing SDGs 11/12/13 and India's circular-economy goals.

Official / authoritative sources: MoEFCC; Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs; CPCB; Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban.

Q18

“Community participation is the cornerstone of effective disaster management”. Analyse this statement with suitable examples from India. Also discuss the challenges to community participation and measures to strengthen it. (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

Disasters are experienced locally, so communities are often the first responders before formal agencies arrive. Participation improves warning communication, evacuation, rescue, shelter management and recovery because it combines local knowledge with social trust.

KEYWORDS  Community-based disaster risk management • First responder • Social capital • Local knowledge • Last-mile warning • Resilience

• Local residents know vulnerable households, terrain, evacuation routes and informal support networks that external responders may not know.

• Participation improves trust in warnings and allows evacuation of elderly, children, persons with disabilities and livestock.

• Challenges include weak training, volunteer fatigue, caste/gender exclusion, limited Panchayat funds and poor interoperability with official agencies.

• Institutionalisation requires regular drills, local disaster committees, contingency funds, inclusive volunteer rosters and accessible early warnings.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Disaster Management Act; NDMA guidelines; Aapda Mitra; Yuva Aapda Mitra; SACHET portal; Panchayat/ULB disaster-management planning.

DATA / FACT:  Aapda Mitra has trained about one lakh community volunteers across hundreds of multi-hazard districts, building a structured local first-response capacity.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  Odisha's cyclone preparedness uses shelters, volunteers and mass evacuation; during the 2018 Kerala floods, fishermen became crucial community rescuers.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Japan's Bosai culture institutionalises neighbourhood drills, school preparedness and local disaster education; Sendai Framework Priority 4 stresses preparedness and Build Back Better.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “Disaster management becomes resilience when the community becomes a stakeholder.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should make community participation a permanent institutional layer through village/ward committees, drills, local funds, inclusive volunteer networks and indigenous knowledge - advancing Sendai, SDGs 11/13 and a whole-of-society resilience model.

Official / authoritative sources: NDMA; Ministry of Home Affairs; National Disaster Management Plan; Sendai Framework.

Q19

Separatist movements have been one of the major factors contributing to militancy and instability in Jammu & Kashmir (J&K). Bring out actions taken by the Government to bring J&K into national mainstream. Discuss pre and post abrogation status of Articles 370 and 35A. Also bring out positive impacts of abrogation of both articles in mainstreaming the state. (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

Separatism in J&K has been shaped by cross-border terrorism, political alienation, radicalisation and local grievances. Government strategy has combined counter-terror action, constitutional integration, elections, development, welfare delivery and efforts to reduce terror financing.

KEYWORDS  Mainstreaming • Constitutional integration • Cross-border terrorism • Counter-radicalisation • Winning hearts and minds • Democratic participation

• Pre-2019, Article 370 created a special constitutional arrangement for J&K; Article 35A enabled the state to define permanent residents and associated privileges.

• On 5 August 2019 Article 370 was rendered inoperative, Article 35A ceased, and the J&K Reorganisation Act created the UTs of J&K and Ladakh.

• Government measures include PRI/DDC and Assembly elections, extension of Union laws/social protections, infrastructure, tourism, youth/skills initiatives and stronger anti-terror-finance action.

• Long-term mainstreaming requires security gains to be matched by political representation, jobs, justice, trust and restoration of normal democratic institutions.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019; constitutional orders of August 2019; counter-terror and terror-finance measures; development packages; democratic-local-government initiatives.

DATA / FACT:  Official security indicators show a substantial long-term decline in organised terrorist violence from earlier decades, though foreign terrorism and sporadic attacks remain serious concerns.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  In Re: Article 370 (2023) upheld the constitutional changes and emphasised restoration of statehood; Assembly elections in 2024 marked a major return to representative politics.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  Counter-insurgency experience worldwide shows that durable stabilisation requires a combined security-development-governance strategy rather than coercion alone.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  Vajpayee's formulation: “Insaniyat, Jamhooriyat, Kashmiriyat.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  Mainstreaming must progress from constitutional integration to emotional, democratic and economic integration through security, elected governance, statehood restoration, jobs and dialogue - consistent with peace, development and SDG 16.

Official / authoritative sources: Constitution of India; Supreme Court of India; Ministry of Home Affairs; J&K Administration; Election Commission of India.

Q20

Discuss counterfeit currency and money laundering as major sources of terror funding in India. State the actions being taken at international level to check these menaces. Highlight the role of Financial Action Task Force (FATF) and methods of compliance by its member states in preventing terror funding. (250 words | 15 marks)

Value Addition

Terror financing depends on raising, moving and disguising funds through both formal and informal channels. Counterfeit currency can support logistics and organised crime, while money laundering hides illicit proceeds through layered transactions, shell entities, hawala, trade and increasingly digital assets.

KEYWORDS  FICN • Placement-layering-integration • Hawala • Trade-based money laundering • Beneficial ownership • CFT • Risk-based approach

• Money laundering typically involves placement of illicit funds, layering through complex transactions and integration into apparently legitimate assets.

• Terror-finance channels include hawala, shell entities, cash couriers, trade misinvoicing, charities/front organisations and virtual assets.

• India uses PMLA, UAPA, KYC/AML norms, FIU-IND, ED, NIA and banking supervision to detect and disrupt illicit flows.

• International cooperation is essential because funds, entities and digital assets move across jurisdictions.

POLICY / FRAMEWORK:  Prevention of Money Laundering Act; UAPA; FIU-IND; RBI KYC/AML framework; beneficial-ownership rules; NIA/ED terror-finance investigations.

DATA / FACT:  RBI banking-system detections show that counterfeit notes continue to appear, especially in higher-value denominations, while the scale of digital transactions increases the need for real-time financial intelligence.

CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE:  FATF mutual evaluations assess technical compliance and effectiveness; India's latest evaluation recognised a strong framework while identifying the need for faster prosecution and stronger supervision in some sectors.

GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE / LINKAGE:  FATF 40 Recommendations; UN International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999); UNSC Resolutions 1267 and 1373; Egmont Group information sharing; crypto Travel Rule.

QUOTE / USE AS LINE:  “To dismantle terrorism, follow the money as relentlessly as the militant.”

FUTURE-ORIENTED CONCLUSION:  India should combine AI-enabled transaction monitoring, beneficial-ownership transparency, VASP/crypto compliance, trade-data analytics and international intelligence sharing. A risk-based FATF-compliant regime strengthens national security while advancing SDG 16 and financial integrity.

Official / authoritative sources: FATF; RBI; FIU-IND; Ministry of Finance; Ministry of Home Affairs; United Nations Security Council.

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